Academic Exchange Quarterly
Winter 2006 ISSN 1096-1453 Volume 10,
Issue 4
To cite, use print source rather than this on-line
version which may not reflect print copy format requirements
or text lay-out and pagination.
The Design Process of Problem Solving
Robin Vande
Zande, Kent State University
Vande Zande,
Ph.D., is an assistant professor and coordinator of art education
Abstract
The design process of problem solving, which provides a
cognitive framework of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation is used by many
professional designers to create solutions to design problems. Students may be taught this process as an
effective life skill, which starts with defining the problem and moving through
steps to creating a logical solution.
Introduction
Problem solving is central to everyone’s existence. People survive if they are fed, sheltered,
and protected but they construct ways to obtain food, shelter, and protection
through problem solving. Though problems
vary in complexity, survival at the one end and the pursuit of contentedness at
the other, we are dependent on our ability to solve problems. The design process is consistent with notions about effective practices for educating K-12 students: using theme-based
and interdisciplinary instruction; fostering self-direction and independence;
teaching topics relevant to the learner; using group interaction; promoting
student discovery; and encouraging critical and creative exploration of ideas
(Currier, 1986; Stevenson, 1992). Students
discover through testing, revising, and retesting that there may be some
solutions that are more effective than others but there are many possibilities
for success.
Good design often is an assimilation of elements that
involves observation, creative brainstorming, and collaboration. The word
design refers to a goal-oriented process that is intended to meet needs to
improve situations or to create something new and/or useful (Freidman, 2003).
At the heart of designing is the design process, which follows a planned
sequence of analytical, synthetic, and evaluative steps until the optimum
solution is finalized. It may involve contemplating, speaking, writing,
drawing, modeling, and constructing. The process follows stages that may be
used sequentially or that may require the student to loop back and modify an
earlier stage. Prototypical models are
often constructed, evaluated, and modified for solution development.
Part One: The teacher gives an assignment, which is
presented as a problem to solve. The
students answer the questions of what,
who, where, when, and how to gain
clarity in defining the problem. This
could be done as a group or individually.
At the elementary level, it
may be easiest for the teacher to guide the questions and complete stage one as
a group. At the middle or high school
levels, it is up to the discretion of the teacher whether each team or
individual is capable of completing this stage with little teacher guidance.
Example lesson: The
teacher asks students to research different Native American tribes in order to
gain an understanding of each group, such as their customs, celebrations,
locations, indigenous foods, gender roles, history, and beliefs. The teacher provides the problem that many
people do not know the backgrounds of these tribes and as a result have some
misconceptions about them, which could simply lead to questions or create
prejudices. The students are given the
task of educating the public about Native American people.
An effective teaching strategy is created if the problem has relevance
to the students’ lives. Students may not
be familiar with different Native American groups but they are familiar with
books and book covers. A book cover is a form of advertising used to persuade
someone to buy the book, or in this case, learn from the cover. The teacher decides that by having the
students create a book cover, which visually highlights the important aspects
of a book, the students will need to know the content of the book. In this example, the content is the
background information about a Native American tribe. Once the research is
completed, applying the information incorporates a higher level thinking skill.
The student, as designer, needs to know the content of the book and reduce the
content to its various essential elements in order to apply the information in
a new form.
This problem has two features:
1) getting the students to learn about Native Americans and 2) designing book
covers to advertise the most essential information about the Native American
tribe they are studying
Example of how to apply the questions for defining this
design problem:
What is needed? A way to get people to better understand the
different Native American tribes and their backgrounds
Who will benefit by it?
People of all ages may benefit
from this. Younger and older people may
have established prejudices because they do not understand differences and how
those affect the way individuals view the world and behave.
Why is it needed? To
reduce misconceptions that may exist about Native American people.
Where will this be used?
This will be used by individuals who
would normally see the book in a bookstore, library, or catalogue. The book covers need to grab people’s
attention.
When will this be used?
Anytime.
Example: Create a way to educate people about Native
American tribes and some of their customs, celebrations, locations, indigenous
foods, gender roles, history, and beliefs through the design of a book
cover. The focus group is the school
community, people of all ages within the school community. The purpose is to build understanding and
reduce misconceptions about Native Americans.
Through interviews, articles, books, the Internet,
observations, role-playing, and/or discussions, students research information
that deals with the problem.
Example: Divide
students into 3-4 member groups and assign a different tribe to each
group. The students will research
background information about one tribe and about book covers as advertising.
Students then collect book covers to study how concepts are visually
communicated, followed by a discussion on aesthetics and style. During this discussion, the following topics
would be covered: the use of color and
imagery to convey meaning and attract attention, the use of words and font
styles to enhance meaning and influence the reader, and other devices used to
make the message enticing. Students should record their observations.
The research stage may be something the students would
like to circumvent so motivational strategies such as the following are
important: 1) Divide the students into groups
of 3 or 4, which allows each person to concentrate on
one part to research and not be overloaded with work plus gives each some
responsibility; 2) Explain the
importance of research with an example, illustrating the usefulness of
obtaining and applying the information; 3) provide the instructional resources
in easy access; 4) engage the students by asking questions to get them to be
more interested in finding pertinent background information to answer the
questions that may lead to a solution.
Once the research is completed, the students allow their
ideas to flow freely before attempting to move to the final solution. Free association of ideas opens the
possibilities for innovative and creative solutions to surface. Creative thinking should be used to get
beyond the first ideas that come to mind.
To develop creative thinking, avoid the following practices: 1) Do not seek the right answer- in
brainstorming there is a danger in looking for THE right answer. There are many
possible satisfactory solutions. 2) Do
not apply logical thinking too early in the process- this closes off the chance
of break-through ideas that may be pursued. 3) Do not try to be practical- this
causes judgments of what works and what would not. Some of the least practical ideas may be the
seed of thought for the final solution.
4) Do not worry about making a mistake- this prevents positive
risk-taking. Creativity requires a leap
into the unknown. 5) Do not think you are not creative- this makes it
challenging to become an inventive
thinker. Using these strategies and
additional encouragement, the likelihood for student success will increase (Wycoff, 1991).
There are different ways to approach creative thinking.
Three of these techniques are brainstorming, mindmapping,
and rough sketching. Brainstorming is a procedure for generating solution
possibilities through openly listing anything that comes to mind as it relates
to the topic. When done in a group, the
facilitator clearly states the topic and the participants give
suggestions. The facilitator includes
any idea WITHOUT editing. Once a comprehensive list is completed and the participants
think they have used all ideas, the facilitator asks for 3-5 more ideas to
stretch their thinking.
Mindmapping is a form of visual
outlining. The facilitator draws a
rectangle or oval in the center of a paper.
Inside this shape, write one or two words, which define the focus of the
problem. The facilitator notes ideas as
they are given, drawing lines out from the center focus and recording the idea.
This is done quickly and everything that comes to mind gets recorded. If it is easier, draw pictures, symbols, or
use color to represent ideas (Wycoff, 1991).
Rough Sketching is done with a sketchbook/journal to
record ideas. For this form of creative
thinking, multiple sketches are quickly made for possible solutions. Once many ideas are generated, the best 2 or
3 solutions for development are recorded.
Rapid prototyping is a 3-dimensional version of this done by quickly
constructing simple dimensional ideas with paper and tape.
Example: Having collected the information about Native
Americans and book covers, students brainstorm ways to organize this
information in order to educate the public.
They are reminded that this will be a book cover that influences
people’s perceptions in a positive manner.
Through a careful selection of words, fonts, color, and a judicious
choice of images, the book cover should be appealing and enlightening. The
Internet is very useful for finding technical information and to better
understand social issues (Pavlova, 2005).
Group A was assigned
to research the Cherokee Indians. This
group did a mindmap then individually sketched ideas
in their journals. They compiled ideas
for 2 designs and then compared the two.
The first design used the illustrated what contributions and similarities
the Cherokee customs have on current mainstream American life. The students collaged pictures and drawings
of women carrying babies in cradleboards juxtaposed to babies in backpack
carriers today. Mohawk haircuts and
tattoos on Cherokee men were placed adjacent to pictures of people displaying
these current trends. Foods eaten
historically by the Cherokees are shown in the background, such as
strawberries, cornbread, squash, and stews.
The second design used visual stories to illustrate various artwork as
shown through their arts: totem poles, rugs, quillwork, kachina
dolls, carvings, and jewelry. The
students found images from the Internet that they downloaded into a paint
program and arranged with a computer program.
This stage reflects the objectives of the lesson and
defines the components of the design problem. The student or team selects the best solution to develop based on
these criteria: creativity, aesthetics, community values, safety, location, or
cost.
Example: Group A
decided on the first design. They
gathered images from magazines, the Internet, photocopies from books, and
literature from the National Native American Museum in Washington, D.C. The students had to determine the best color,
words, and font style that provided context and meaning. Turquoise blue paper was chosen to represent
turquoise jewelry. A basketweave
font representing Native American basketry was selected for the title.
Stage five: Determine the Work Plan
The students describe how the model prototype will be made, what
materials are needed, and approximately how long it will take to complete.
A carefully crafted model or drawing is made.
In the final stage,
the students may present the design solutions to other students, parents,
faculty, administrators, or a group connected to the topic. The audience is the “focus group” who will
give feedback on the effectiveness of the solution. The various approaches for
presentations may involve a planned lecture, a digital program (such as
PowerPoint), graphics, presentation boards, video and audio documents, among
others.
In developing a
presentation, here are some points to follow:
1) Clearly state the
design problem, give a brief background of the research, quickly explain the
considered solutions, and show the final model stating why it was the best
solution.
2) Keep the
presentation short and simple.
3) Be accurate and
relevant to your audience.
In planning the verbal
portion of the presentation, think of it as theater in three acts with an
introduction, the body, and conclusion (Gottesman
& Mauro (2001). The three acts
include:
Act 1: The presenter starts the presentation with the
introduction during which he/she clearly states the specific issue to be
addressed, explains the points to be covered, and convinces the audience that
they should care.
Act 2: The body of the speech incorporates what the audience
needs to hear, in a way they understand.
Act 3: The conclusion
should be persuasively stated, noting what the audience is supposed to
understand and remember.
In preparing a presentation board, the students should
include drawings, sample swatches of textures and colors, photographs, graphs,
diagrams, pictograms, and any other pertinent visual materials. The textual information would include the
most essential words and not any more.
The text should be easily visible by the audience and organized in a
logical fashion.
Example: The
students show the book cover to the focus group and ask what they understand by
looking at it, without giving an explanation.
The students note the feedback.
If the feedback is on target with what they had hoped to convey, they
have completed their assignment. If it
is not, they ask for further ideas to improve the message. They then show a presentation board that
includes the different possibilities they considered in deciding color, fonts,
images, etc when they were creating the prototype.
The students need to answer whether the focus group
understood the prototype. If the answer
is no, then they determine what changes are needed and what is required to make
those changes.
Conclusion
By using the design process for problem solving, a
conceptual framework is presented that impels students to become self-directed
learners who use inquiry, think at high levels, and solve problems. McTighe, Seif, and Wiggins (2004)
explain that teachers should regularly use engaging, stimulating, and
interactive instructional approaches.
Weiss and Pasley (2004) expand on this premise
by emphasizing that high quality instruction occurs when students are
challenged to engage deeply with the content, in part, through contributing
their ideas and questions. The design process promotes a flexible, creative,
integrated approach to establish a foundation of understanding through research
in various areas and an integration of knowledge from many disciplines. The
introduction of the design process is a step toward meaningful learning that
engages the students interactively in a purposeful pursuit of knowledge.
References
Currier, L. (1986). A declaration
of independence: A creed for middle school educators.
Middle School Journal, 17(2), 4-6.
Freidman, K. (2003).
Theory construction in design research: Criteria, approaches, and
methods. Design Studies, 24(6), 507-522.
Gottesman, D. & Mauro, B.
(2001). Taking center stage: Masterful public speaking
using acting skills you never knew you had. NY: A Berkley Book.
McTighe, J., Seif,
E., & Wiggins, G. (2004). You can
teach for meaning. Educational
Leadership, 62(1), 26-31
Pavlova, M. (2005). Social change: How should technology
education respond? International Journal
of Technology and Design Education, 15, 199-215.
Stevenson, C. (1992). Teaching
ten- to fourteen- year olds. New York: Longman.
Weiss, I. R. & Pasley, J. D.
(2004). What is high-quality
instruction? Educational
Leadership, 61(5), 24-9.
Wycoff, J.(1991). Mindmapping. NY: Berkley Books.